Francis Bacon (Renaissance philosopher, statesman, scientist)

Bacon was an English philosopher and statesman, and a pioneer of modern scientific thought.

Francis Bacon was born on 22 January 1561 in London. He was the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, keeper of the great seal for Elizabeth I. Bacon studied at Cambridge University and at Gray's Inn and became a member of parliament in 1584. However, he was unpopular with Elizabeth, and it was only on the accession of James I in 1603 that Bacon's career began to prosper. Knighted that year, he was appointed to a succession of posts culminating, like his father, with keeper of the great seal.

However, Bacon's real interests lay in science. Much of the science of the period was based on the work of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. While many Aristotelian ideas, such as the position of the earth at the centre of the universe, had been overturned, his methodology was still being used. This held that scientific truth could be reached by way of authoritative argument: if sufficiently clever men discussed a subject long enough, the truth would eventually be discovered. Bacon challenged this, arguing that truth required evidence from the real world. He published his ideas, initially in 'Novum Organum' (1620), an account of the correct method of acquiring natural knowledge.

Bacon's political ascent also continued. In 1618 he was appointed lord chancellor, the most powerful position in England, and in 1621 he was created viscount St Albans. Shortly afterwards, he was charged by parliament with accepting bribes, which he admitted. He was fined and imprisoned and then banished from court. Although the king later pardoned him, this was the end of Bacon's public life. He retired to his home at Gorhambury in Hertfordshire, where he continued to write. He died in London on 9 April 1626.

Charles Babbage(Victorian pioneer of computer science)

Babbage was a British mathematician, an original and innovative thinker and a pioneer of computing.

Charles Babbage was born on 26 December 1791, probably in London, the son of a banker. He was often unwell as a child and was educated mainly at home. By the time he went to Cambridge University in 1810 he was very interested in mathematics.

After graduation Babbage was hired by the Royal Institution to lecture on calculus. Within two years he had been elected a member of the Royal Society and, with his Cambridge friends, was instrumental in setting up the Astronomical Society in 1820, the first to challenge the dominance of the Royal Society. From 1828 to 1839, Babbage was Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge.

The 1820s saw Babbage work on his 'Difference Engine', a machine which could perform mathematical calculations. A six-wheeled model was initially constructed and demonstrated to a number of audiences. He then developed plans for a bigger, better, machine - Difference Engine 2. He also worked on another invention, the more complex Analytical Engine, a revolutionary device on which his fame as a computer pioneer now largely rests. It was intended to be able to perform any arithmetical calculation using punched cards that would deliver the instructions, as well as a memory unit to store numbers and many other fundamental components of today's computers. The remarkable British mathematician Ada Lovelace completed a program for the Analytical Engine but neither it, nor Difference Engine 2, were finished in Babbage's lifetime.

Babbage also worked in the fields of philosophy and code-breaking, as well as campaigning for reform in British science. He died at his home in London on 18 October 1871.

Sir isaac newton - biography

Newton was an English physicist and mathematician, and the greatest scientist of his era.

Isaac Newton was born on 4 January 1643 in Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire. His father was a prosperous farmer, who died three months before Newton was born. His mother remarried and Newton was left in the care of his grandparents. In 1661, he went to Cambridge University where he became interested in mathematics, optics, physics and astronomy. In October 1665, a plague epidemic forced the university to close and Newton returned to Woolsthorpe. The two years he spent there were an extremely fruitful time during which he began to think about gravity. He also devoted time to optics and mathematics, working out his ideas about 'fluxions' (calculus).

In 1667, Newton returned to Cambridge, where he became a fellow of Trinity College. Two years later he was appointed second Lucasian professor of mathematics. It was Newton's reflecting telescope, made in 1668, that finally brought him to the attention of the scientific community and in 1672 he was made a fellow of the Royal Society. From the mid-1660s, Newton conducted a series of experiments on the composition of light, discovering that white light is composed of the same system of colours that can be seen in a rainbow and establishing the modern study of optics (or the behaviour of light). In 1704, Newton published 'The Opticks' which dealt with light and colour. He also studied and published works on history, theology and alchemy.

In 1687, with the support of his friend the astronomer Edmond Halley, Newton published his single greatest work, the 'Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica' ('Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy'). This showed how a universal force, gravity, applied to all objects in all parts of the universe.

In 1689, Newton was elected member of parliament for Cambridge University (1689 - 1690 and 1701 - 1702). In 1696,Newton was appointed warden of the Royal Mint, settling in London. He took his duties at the Mint very seriously and campaigned against corruption and inefficiency within the organisation. In 1703, he was elected president of the Royal Society, an office he held until his death. He was knighted in 1705.

Newton was a difficult man, prone to depression and often involved in bitter arguments with other scientists, but by the early 1700s he was the dominant figure in British and European science. He died on 31 March 1727 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

Albert Einstein - Biography

Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich, where he later on began his schooling at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert continued his education at Aarau, Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. In 1901, the year he gained his diploma, he acquired Swiss citizenship and, as he was unable to find a teaching post, he accepted a position as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor's degree.

During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he produced much of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton*. He became a United States citizen in 1940 and retired from his post in 1945.

After World War II, Einstein was a leading figure in the World Government Movement, he was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he declined, and he collaborated with Dr. Chaim Weizmann in establishing the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physics and the determination to solve them. He had a strategy of his own and was able to visualize the main stages on the way to his goal. He regarded his major achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance.

At the start of his scientific work, Einstein realized the inadequacies of Newtonian mechanics and his special theory of relativity stemmed from an attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statistical mechanics and problems in which they were merged with quantum theory: this led to an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a low radiation density and his observations laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.

In his early days in Berlin, Einstein postulated that the correct interpretation of the special theory of relativity must also furnish a theory of gravitation and in 1916 he published his paper on the general theory of relativity. During this time he also contributed to the problems of the theory of radiation and statistical mechanics.

In the 1920's, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified field theories, although he continued to work on the probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory, and he persevered with this work in America. He contributed to statistical mechanics by his development of the quantum theory of a monatomic gas and he has also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic transition probabilities and relativistic cosmology.

After his retirement he continued to work towards the unification of the basic concepts of physics, taking the opposite approach, geometrisation, to the majority of physicists.

Einstein's researches are, of course, well chronicled and his more important works includeSpecial Theory of Relativity (1905), Relativity (English translations, 1920 and 1950), General Theory of Relativity (1916), Investigations on Theory of Brownian Movement (1926), and The Evolution of Physics (1938). Among his non-scientific works, About Zionism (1930), Why War?(1933), My Philosophy (1934), and Out of My Later Years (1950) are perhaps the most important.

Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American universities. During the 1920's he lectured in Europe, America and the Far East and he was awarded Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies throughout the world. He gained numerous awards in recognition of his work, including the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1935.

Einstein's gifts inevitably resulted in his dwelling much in intellectual solitude and, for relaxation, music played an important part in his life. He married Mileva Maric in 1903 and they had a daughter and two sons; their marriage was dissolved in 1919 and in the same year he married his cousin, Elsa Löwenthal, who died in 1936. He died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.

Historians still call the year 1905 the annus mirabilis, the miracle year because in that year Einstein published four remarkable scientific papers ranging from the smallest scale to the largest, through fundamental problems about the nature of energy, matter, motion, time and space.

• In March 1905 , Einstein created the quantum theory of light, the idea that light exists as tiny packets, or particles, which he called photons. Alongside Max Planck's work on quanta of heat Einstein proposed one of the most shocking idea in twentieth century physics: we live in a quantum universe, one built out of tiny, discrete chunks of energy and matter.

• Next, in April and May, Einstein published two papers. In one he invented a new method of counting and determining the size of the atoms or molecules in a given space and in the other he explains the phenomenon of Brownian motion. The net result was a proof that atoms actually exist - still an issue at that time - and the end to a millennia-old debate on the fundamental nature of the chemical elements.

• And then, in June, Einstein completed special relativity - which added a twist to the story: Einstein's March paper treated light as particles, but special relativity sees light as a continuous field of waves. Such a contradiction took a supremely confident mind to propose. Einstein, age 26, saw light as wave and particle, picking the attribute he needed to confront each problem in turn.

• Einstein wasn't finished yet. Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics:
  E=mc². (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body times the speed of light squared).
  This equation predicted an evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained by ordinary physiochemical means. At first, even Einstein did not grasp the full implications of his formula, but even then he suggested that the heat produced by radium could mark the conversion of tiny amounts of the mass of the radium salts into energy.

And after 1905, Einstein achieved what no one since has equaled: a twenty year run at the cutting edge of physics. For all the miracles of his miracle year, his best work was still to come:

In 1907, he confronted the problem of gravitation. Einstein began his work with one crucial insight: gravity and acceleration are equivalent, two facets of the same phenomenon.

Before anyone else, Einstein recognized the essential dualism in nature, the co-existence of particles and waves at the level of quanta. In 1911 he declared resolving the quantum issue to be the central problem of physics.

Even the minor works resonated. For example, in 1910, Einstein answered a basic question: 'Why is the sky blue?' His paper on the phenomenon called critical opalescence solved the problem by examining the cumulative effect of the scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere.

• Then in 1915, Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity - the product of eight years of work on the problem of gravity. In general relativity Einstein shows that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time. What we feel as the 'force' of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved, four-dimensional space-time. It is a radical vision: space is no longer the box the universe comes in; instead, space and time, matter and energy are, as Einstein proves, locked together in the most intimate embrace.

  ( Look at a scenario designed by HHO to explain of why time varies according to general relativity theory - see Time variations)

• In 1917, Einstein published a paper which uses general relativity to model the behavior of an entire universe. Einstein's paper was the first in the modern field of cosmology - the study of the behavior of the universe as a whole.

  Returning to the quantum, by 1919, six years before the invention of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle Einstein recognized that there might be a problem with the classical notion of cause and effect. Given the peculiar, dual nature of quanta as both waves and particles, it might be impossible, he warned, to definitively tie effects to their causes.

• In 1924 and 1925 Einstein still made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory. His last work on the theory built on ideas developed by Satyendra Nath Bose, and predicted a new state of matter (to add to the list of solid, liquid, and gas) called a Bose-Einstein condensate. The condensate was finally created at exceptionally low temperatures only last year.

Einstein always had a distaste for modern quantum theory - largely because its probabilistic nature forbids a complete description of cause and effect. But still, he recognized many of the fundamental implications of the idea of the quantum long before the rest of the physics community did. (In 'Albert Einstein: Creator and Rebel' by Hoffmann, the author describes that Max Planck himself was sceptical of his own quantum hypothesis which was highly distasteful to him and introduced merely as 'an act of desperation'. Between 1900 and 1905 the quantum concept remained in limbo. In all the world there seems to have been in those years only one man to dare take it seriously. That man was Einstein who immediately sensed the importance of Planck's work and used the idea in his own paper about the theory of light).

After the quantum mechanical revolution of 1925 through 1927, Einstein spent the bulk of his remaining scientific career searching for a deeper theory to subsume quantum mechanics and eliminate its probabilities and uncertainties. He generated pages of equations, geometrical descriptions of fields extending through many dimensions that could unify all the known forces of nature. None of the theories worked out. It was a waste of time ... and yet :

• Contemporary theoretical physics is dominated by what are known as 'String theories.' They are multi-dimensional. (Some versions include as many as 26 dimensions, with fifteen or sixteen curled up in a tiny ball.) They are geometrical - the interactions of one multi-dimensional shape with another produces the effects we call forces, just as the 'force' of gravity in general relativity is what we feel as we move through the curves of four-dimensional space-time. And they unify, no doubt about it: in the math, at least, all of nature from quantum mechanics to gravity emerges from the equations of string theory.

  As it stands, string theories are unproved, and perhaps unprovable, as they involve interactions at energy levels far beyond any we can handle. But they are beautiful, to those versed enough in the language of mathematics to follow them. And in their beauty (and perhaps in their impenetrability) they are the heirs to Einstein's primitive, first attempts to produce a unified field theory.

Between 1905 to 1925, Einstein transformed humankind's understanding of nature on every scale, from the smallest to that of the cosmos as a whole. Now, nearly a century after he began to make his mark, we are still exploring Einstein's universe.

Disebalik gelak tawa “April Fool”

Setiap kali menjelang tarikh 1 April, ramai diantara kita begitu terpengaruh dengan budaya ‘pandang ke barat’, dan mereka menjadi begitu meriah dan humor sekali. Otak masing-masing penuh dengan rancangan dan mencari mangsa-mangsa untuk dipermain-mainkan. Bahkan sewaktu sedang bekerja atau sedang makan pun kepala mereka mencari cara dan membuat rencangan ‘guruan’ ini.

Tiap tarikh 1 April, ada saja orang—terutama anak-anak muda—yang merayakan hari tersebut dengan membuat aneka kejutan atau sesuatu gurauan. April Fools Day, demikian orang Barat menyebut hari tarikh 1 April atau lebih popular disebut sebagai ‘April Mop’.

Namun tahukah Anda jika perayaan tersebut sesungguhnya berasal dari sejarah penyeranagn tentara Salib terhadap Muslim Spanyol yang memang didahului dengan cara penipuan? Inilah sejarahnya yang disalin semula dari sebagiann dari buku “Valentine Day, Natal, Happy New Year, April Mop, Halloween: So What?” (Rizki Ridyasmara, Pustaka Alkautsar, 2005)

Yang penting mereka ingin puas melihat muka mangsa-mangsa gurauan April Mop mereka merah padam karana dipermain-mainkan. Bagaimanapun, tanpa mereka sadari, kadang gurauan-gurauan atau ‘practical jokes’ yang dilakukan dapat menjadikan perselisihan dan penyesalan yang berkepanjangan.

SEJARAH APRIL MOP
Perayaan April Mop yang selalu diakhiri dengan kegembiraan dan kepuasan itu sesungguhnya berasal dari satu tragedi besar yang sangat menyedihkan dan memilukan. April Mop atau The April’s Fool Day berasal dari satu episode sejarah Muslim Spanyol di tahun 1487 atau bertepatan dengan 892 H. Sebelum sampai pada tragedi tersebut, ada baiknya melihat sejarah Spanyol dahulu ketika masih di bawah kekuasaan Islam.

Sejak dikuasai Islam pada abad ke-8 M oleh Panglima Thariq bin Ziyad , Spanyol berangsur-angsur tumbuh menjadi satu negeri yang makmur. Pasukan Islam tidak saja berhenti di Spanyol, namun terus melakukan perluasan di negeri-negeri sekitar menuju Perancis. Perancis Selatan dengan mudah telah ditakluki. Kota Carcassone, Nimes, Bordeaux, Lyon, Poitou, Tours, dan sebagainya jatuh. Walau sangat kuat, pasukan Islam masih memberikan ‘toleransi’ kepada suku Goth dan Navaro di daerah sebelah Barat kawasan pegunungan.

Islam telah menerangi Spanyol. Karana sikap para pemerentah Islam begitu baik dan rendah hati, maka ramai orang-orang Spanyol yang kemudian dengan tulus dan ikhlas memeluk Islam. Muslim Spanyol bukan hanya beragama Islam, namun mereka sungguh-sungguh mempraktikkan kehidupan secara Islami. Mereka tidak hanya membaca Al-Qur’an tapi juga bertingkah laku berdasarkan Al-Qur’an. Mereka selalu berkata tidak untuk muzik, bear, pergaulan bebas, dan segala hal yang dilarang Islam. Keadaan tenteram seperti itu berlangsung hampir enam abad lamanya.

Selama itu pula kaum kafir yang masih ada di sekeliling Spanyol tanpa kenal putus asa terus berupaya membersihkan Islam dari Spanyol, namun mereka selalu gagal. Telah beberapa kali dicuba tapi selalu tidak berhasil. Dihantar sejumlah perisik untuk mempelajari kelemahan umat Islam di Spanyol. Akhirnya perisik itu menemukan cara untuk menaklukkan Islam di Spanyol, yakni pertama-tama harus melemahkan iman mereka dulu dengan jalan serangan pemikiran dan budaya.

Maka mulailah secara diam-diam mereka menghantar alkohol dan rokok secara terus menerus ke dalam wilayah Spanyol. Muzik diperdengarkan untuk memikat kaum mudanya agar lebih suka bernyanyi dan menari berbanding baca Qur’an. Mereka juga mengirim sejumlah ulamak palsu yang kerjanya meniup-niupkan perpecahan di dalam tubuh umat Islam Spanyol. Lama-kelamaan usaha ini membuahkan hasil.

Akhirnya Spanyol jatuh da dikuasai pasukan Salib. Penyerangan oleh pasukan Salib benar-benar dilakukan dengan kejam tanpa mengenal peri kemanusiaan.

Tidak hanya pasukan Islam yang disembelih, juga penduduk sipil, wanita, anak-anak kecil, orang-orang tua, semuanya dilibas dengan pedang.

Satu persatu daerah di Spanyol jatuh, Granada adalah daerah terakhir yang ditaklukkan. Penduduk-penduduk Islam di Spanyol (juga disebut orang Moor) terpaksa berlindung di dalam rumah untuk menyelamatkan diri. Tentara-tentara Kristen terus mengejar mereka.

Ketika jalan-jalan sudah sepi, tinggal menyaksikan ribuan mayat yang bergelimpangan bermandikan darah, tentara Salib mengetahui bahwa banyak Muslim Granada yang masih bersembunyi di rumah-rumah.

Dengan lantang tentara Salib itu mengumumkan pengampunan, bahwa para Muslim Granada boleh keluar dari rumah dengan aman dan diperbolehkan berlayar keluar dari Spanyol dengan membawa barang-barang keperluan mereka. “Kapal-kapal yang akan membawa kamu keluar dari Spanyol sudah kami persiapkan di pelabuhan. Kami menjamin keselamatan kamu jika ingin keluar dari Spanyol, setelah ini maka kami tidak lagi memberikan jaminan!” demikian bujuk tentara Salib.

Orang-orang Islam masih curiga dengan tawaran ini. Beberapa dari orang Islam diperbolehkan melihat sendiri kapal-kapal penumpang yang sudah dipersiapkan di pelabuhan. Setelah benar-benar melihat ada kapal yang sudah dipersiapkan, maka mereka segera bersiap untuk meninggalkan Granada bersama-sama menuju ke kapal-kapal tersebut. Mereka pun bersiap untuk berlayar.

Keesokan harinya, ribuan penduduk Muslim Granada yang keluar dari rumah-rumahnya dengan membawa seluruh barang-barang keperluannya beriringan jalan menuju pelabuhan. Beberapa orang Islam yang tidak mempercayai tentara Salib bertahan dan terus bersembunyi di rumah-rumahnya.

Setelah ribuan umat Islam Spanyol berkumpul di pelabuhan, dengan cepat tentara Salib menggeledah rumah-rumah yang telah itinggalkan penghuninya. Lidah api terlihat menjilat-jilat angkasa ketika para tentara Salib itu membakar rumah-rumah tersebut bersama orang-orang Islam yang masih bertahan di dalamnya.

Sedang ribuan umat Islam yang tertahan di pelabuhan hanya boleh melihat ketika tentara Salib juga membakar kapal-kapal yang dikatakan akan mengangkut mereka keluar dari Spanyol. Kapal-kapal itu dengan cepat tenggelam. Ribuan umat Islam tidak boleh berbuat apa-apa karana sama sekali tidak bersenjata. Mereka juga kebanyakan terdiri dari para perempuan dan anak-anaknya yang masih kecil-kecil. Sedang tentara Salib itu telah mengepung mereka dengan pedang terhunus.

Dengan satu teriakan dari pemimpinnya, ribuan tentara Salib itu segera menyerang dan melibas umat Islam Spanyol tanpa perasaan belas kasihan. Jerit tangis dan takbir membahana. Dengan buas tentara Salib terus membunuhi warga awam yang sama sekali tidak berdaya.

Seluruh Muslim Spanyol di pelabuhan itu habis dibunuh dengan kejam. Darah menggenang di mana-mana. Laut yang biru telah berubah menjadi merah kehitam-hitaman. Tragedi ini bertepatan dengan tanggal 1 April. Inilah yang kemudian diperingati oleh dunia Kristen setiap tanggal 1 April sebagai April Mop (The Aprils Fool Day).

Bagi umat Islam April Mop tentu merupakan tragedi yang sangat menyedihkan. Hari di mana ribuan saudara-saudaranya seiman disembelih dan dilibas oleh tentara Salib di Granada, Spanyol. Sebab itu, adalah sangat patut jika ada orang Islam yang terikut-ikut merayakan tradisi ini. Sebab dengan ikut merayakan April Mop, sesungguhnya orang-orang Islam itu ikut bergembira dan tertawa atas tragedi tersebut. Siapa pun orang Islam yang turut merayakan April Mop, maka ia sesungguhnya tengah merayakan ulang tahun pembunuhan massal ribuan saudara-saudaranya di Granada, Spanyol, beberapa abad silam.

Sama2 lah kita fikirkan dan renungkan bersama…

Kisah Di Sebalik Hari Halloween..

Halloween adalah tradisi perayaan malam 31 Oktober terutamanya di negara-negara barat, dan ia dilakukan dengan berpakaian aneh dan berjalan dari pintu ke pintu rumah dan meminta gula-gula atau coklat dengan berkata "Trick or treat!". Ucapan "Trick or treat!" merupakan semacam "ugutan" yang membawa maksud "Beri kami (gula-gula) atau kami buat kacau."

Kanak-kanak zaman sekarang biasanya tidak lagi membuat kacau di rumah orang yang tidak memberi apa-apa. Sebahagian kanak-kanak masih membuat kacau di rumah orang yang dianggap kedekut dengan cara "menghiasi" pohon yang ada di depan rumah dengan kertas tisu atau menulis di tingkap dengan sabun.

Halloween biasanya dikaitkan dengan syaitan, ahli sihir, hantu, Goblin dan makhluk-makhluk mitos dan menyeramkan lain dari kebudayaan Barat. Halloween disambut dengan menghiasi rumah dan pusat membeli-belah dengan simbol-simbol Halloween tersebut.

Halloween berasal dari perkataan Hallowe'en yang merupakan singkatan dari All Hallow's Eve (malam sebelum hari All Hallow). Hari raya agama Katolik bernama Hari Para Orang Kudus (All Saints Holy Day) yang dirayakan 1 November pernah dikenal sebagai All Hallows' Day yang merupakan penyingkatan dari All Hallowed Souls. Dalam bahasa Inggeris, perkataan Hallowed(holy) bererti Orang Kudus.

Hari Para Orang Kudus ditentukan oleh para mubaligh Kristian bertepatan dengan hari perayaan orang gasar dengan alasan ingin orang gasar mempercayai agama Kristian. Hari Para Mendiang (Day of the Dead) yang merayakan kedatangan roh sanak-saudara dan kerabat kembali ke bumi sehingga kini masih disambut di beberapa negara seperti di Brazil, Mexico, dan Filipina.

Halloween berasal dari orang Celt di Ireland, Britain dan Perancis sebagai tradisi paganisme perayaan musim tuai. Pada abad ke-19, orang Ireland dan Scotland membawanya ke Amerika Utara.

Simbol Halloween dikaitkan dengan musim luruh dan watak-watak terkenal dan menyeramkan dari filem Amerika dan ahli pereka grafik. Simbol Halloween biasanya dikaitkan dengan kematian, keajaiban, dan raksasa dari dunia mitos.

Watak yang sering dikaitkan dengan Halloween misalnya ialah watak syaitan dan iblis dalam kebudayaan Barat, manusia labu, makhluk asing, ahli sihir, kelawar, burung hantu, burung gagak, burung bangkai, rumah hantu, kucing hitam, labah-labah, goblin, zombi, mumia, tengkorak, dan serigala jadian. Di Amerika Syarikat, simbol Halloween biasanya turut dikaitkan dengan tokoh dalam filem klasik dari Drakula hinggalah Frankenstein.

Hitam dan oren dianggap sebagai warna tradisional Halloween, walaupun sekarang banyak juga barang-barang Halloween yang berwarna ungu, hijau dan merah.

Labu yang merupakan hasil tuaian musim gugur di hemisfera beriklim sejuk sering dijadikan simbol Halloween, begitu pula orang-orang sawah sebagai penjaga hasil tuai. Simbol Halloween yang difahamkan secara sejagat adalah labu yang diukir membentuk wajah "menyeramkan" yang diberi nama Jack-o'-lantern. Untuk kelihatan lebih seram, pelita Jack-o'-lantern biasanya diletakkan di tempat gelap, kerana di dalam labu diletakkan lilin yang menyala atau lampu.

Di Amerika Syarikat, pelita Jack-o'-lantern sering diletakkan di depan pintu masuk rumah apabila hari mula gelap. Tradisi membuat pelita Jack-o'-lantern berasal dari Amerika Utara yang banyak menghasilkan labu berukuran besar yang mudah diukir.

Di hemisfera utara, perayaan Halloween berlangsung ketika musim epal sehingga Candy Apple atau caramel apple (epal yang dicelup ke dalam cairan gula) terkenal sebagai makanan Halloween.

Selain itu, hidangan lain sebagai tradisi Halloween ialah pai labu, sari buah epal (minuman cider), gula-gula jagung, tofi bonfire, Tofi epal, dan gula-gula yang dibungkus dengan warna Halloween (oren, coklat, atau hitam).

kisah VALENTINE"S DAY.

Tarikh 14 Februari merupakan hari yang dianggap keramat oleh pasangan-pasangan yang sedang berkasih. Hari yang dikenali sebagaiValentine’s Day atau Hari Memperingati Kekasih dianggap sebagai satu masa untuk mengisytiharkan ketulusan cinta kepada pasangan masing-masing.

Maka pada 14 Februari, pasangan-pasangan kekasih ini akan memakai pakaian yang terbaik dan sebaiknya hendaklah ia berwarna merah, bertukar-tukar hadiah dan seeloknya adalah bunga ros berwarna merah.

Pasangan-pasangan ini juga akan bercanda di merata-rata tempat sehingga terjadilah adegan-adegan maksiat yang bertentangan dengan syarak demi untuk membuktikan kasih dan sayang mereka yang tidak ternilai harganya.

Saban tahun juga para ulama mengingatkan kepada umat Islam agar menghindari menyambut Hari Valentine ini namun ia seperti menuang air ke daun keladi. Hari Valentine tidak ada kena-mengena dengan umat Islam malah hukum menyambutnya adalah haram. Ia adalah sambutan yang berkaitan dengan agama Rom kuno dan juga Kristian.

Sejarah Sambutan Hari Valentine

Bila kita membicarakan tentang sejarah sambutan hari Valentine, maka kita akan dapati bahawa terdapat empat pendapat berkaitan dengannya.

- Pendapat pertama mengaitkannya dengan pesta sambutan kaum Rom kuno sebelum kedatangan agama Kristian yang dinamakan Lupercalia. Lupercalia merupakan upacara penyucian diri yang berlangsung dari 13 hingga 18 Februari. Dua hari pertama mereka menyembah dewi cinta bagi kaum Rom kuno yang bernama Juno Februata.

Pada hari ini para pemuda Rom memilih nama-nama gadis-gadis yang menjadi pilihan mereka lalu dimasukkan ke dalam sebuah kotak. Setiap pemuda tersebut kemudiannya akan mencabut nama tersebut dari dalam kotak itu secara rawak. Nama gadis yang tertera di dalam kertas tersebut akan menjadi pasangan yang akan menjadi objek hiburan seksnya selama setahun.

Pada 15 Februari, mereka meminta perlindungan dewa Lupercalia dari gangguan serigala. Pada hari ini mereka akan menyembelih seekor anjing dan kambing. Kemudian mereka akan memilih dua pemuda Rom yang dianggap paling gagah untuk menyapukan darah binatang tersebut ke badan mereka lalu mencucinya pula dengan susu.

Setelah itu akan di adakan perarakan besar-besaran yang diketuai dua pemuda tersebut dan mereka berdua akan memukul orang ramai yang berada di laluan mereka dengan kulit binatang dan para wanita akan berebut-rebut untuk menerima pukulan tersebut kerana mereka beranggapan ia akan menambahkan kesuburan mereka.

- Pendapat kedua mengaitkannya dengan kematian paderi St. Valentine ketika pemerintahan Raja Rom yang bernama Claudius II. Terdapat dua versi cerita berkaitan dengan St. Valentine ini.

Versi pertama. Pada masa pemerintahan Claudius II, kerajaan Rom yang menyembah dewa-dewi amat memusuhi penganut agama Kristian dan para mubaligh Kristian telah dipenjara serta disiksa. St. Valentine sebagai seorang yang tegar menganut agama Kristian dan aktif menyebarkan ajaran tersebut turut dipenjarakan oleh Cladius II.

Dikhabarkan St. Valentine walaupun dipenjarakan, beliau tetap mengajar dan menyebarkan agama tersebut di kalangan banduan-banduan penjara di samping membantu tawanan-tawanan penjara meloloskan diri dari penjara. Kegiatan ini telah diketahui oleh Cladius II dan beliau memerintahkan St. Valentine diseksa dan akhirnya dihukum bunuh pada 14 Februari.

Pengorbanan yang dilakukan oleh St Valentine ini dianggap oleh penganut Kristian sebagai satu pengorbanan yang besar demi kecintaan beliau terhadap agamanya. Malah St. Valentine disamakan dengan Jesus yang dianggap oleh penganut Kristian mati kerana menebus dosa yang dilakukan oleh kaumnya.

Dikatakan juga bahawa ketika di dalam penjara, beliau telah jatuh cinta dengan anak salah seorang pegawai penjara dan di akhir hayatnya sebelum dibunuh, beliau sempat menulis sepucuk surat cinta kepada gadis tersebut yang bertandatangan From your Valentine (Daripada Valentinemu).

Maka orang-orang Kristian mengambil sempena 14 Februari itu untuk meraikan hari kasih sayang demi memperingati hari kematian paderi mereka St. Valentine.

Versi kedua. Claudius II beranggapan bahawa anggota tentera yang muda dan masih bujang adalah lebih tabah dan kuat ketika berada di medan peperangan berbanding dengan mereka yang telah berkahwin. Justeru itu Cladius II menghalang para pemuda dari berkahwin.

Namun demikian St.Valentine menentangnya dengan keras dan beliau telah melakukan upacara pernikahan terhadap para pemuda-pemuda Rom secara sulit. Aktiviti St. Valentine ini akhirnya dapat diketahui oleh Cladius II lalu beliau mengarahkan St. Valentine ditangkap dan dihukum gantung pada 14 Februari 269 M.

- Pendapat ketiga. Ia dirayakan sempena kejatuhan kerajaan Islam Andalusia di Sepanyol. St. Valentine merupakan individu yang memainkan peranan penting dalam usaha menjatuhkan kerajaan Islam pada masa itu. Disebabkan sumbangan beliau itu, St. Valentine dianggap sebagai kekasih rakyat. Tanggal 14 Februari 1492 merupakan tarikh kejatuhan Islam di Sepanyol dan dianggap pada hari itu hari kasih sayang kerana mereka menganggap Islam adalah agama yang zalim.

- Pendapat keempat. Sambutan hari Valentine ini bersempena dengan sifat burung yang musim mengawan burung yang jatuh pada 14hb Februari. Ini merupakan pendapat tradisi orang Inggeris.

Di sini kita dapat melihat dengan jelas bahawa asal-usul sambutan Hari Valentine ini tidak ada hubung-kaitnya dengan budaya serta agama bagi umat Islam.

Hukum sambut Valentine

Sebagaimana yang termaktub di dalam al-Quran dan al-Sunnah serta disepakati oleh generasi awal umat Islam hari kebesaran bagi umat Islam yang mana disyariatkan bagi kita menyambutnya hanyalah Hari Raya Aidilfitri dan Aidiladha.

Ini sebagaimana yang firman Allah SWT: Bagi tiap-tiap umat, Kami adakan satu syariat yang tertentu untuk mereka ikuti dan jalankan, maka janganlah ahli-ahli syariat yang lain membantahmu dalam urusan syariatmu; dan serulah (wahai Muhammad) umat manusia kepada agama Tuhanmu, kerana sesungguhnya engkau adalah berada di atas jalan yang lurus. (al-Hajj: 67)

Anas bin Malik r.a berkata: Nabi SAW pernah datang ke Madinah sedangkan penduduknya memiliki dua hari raya. Pada kedua-duanya mereka bermain-main (bergembira) di masa jahiliah. Lalu baginda bersabda: “Sesungguhnya Allah telah menggantikan kedua-duanya bagi kamu semua dengan dua hari yang lebih baik, iaitu hari raya Aidiladha dan Aidilfitri”. (riwayat al-Nasaai, no: 959).

Oleh itu hendaklah umat Islam membataskan diri dengan menyambut hari-hari perayaan yang diiktiraf oleh Allah dan Rasul-Nya khusus untuk umat Islam. Setelah berakhir zaman salafussoleh iaitu tiga kurun terbaik bagi umat Islam, pelbagai hari perayaan telah ditambah ke dalam kalendar umat Islam seperti Maulid al-Rasul, Israk Mikraj, Maal Hijrah, Nuzul al-Quran dan lain-lain.

Namun demikian apa yang mendukacitakan adalah umat Islam pada zaman kini telah mula merayakan hari-hari perayaan yang langsung tidak berkaitan dengan umat Islam. Malah ia berasal dari budaya serta agama golongan yang ingkar kepada perintah Allah S.W.T. seperti sambutan Tahun Baru Masihi, Hari Halloween dan juga Hari Valentine yang sedang kita perbincangkan ini. Terdapat larangan daripada baginda s.a.w. untuk meniru budaya orang bukan Islam dan bagi mereka yang meniru budaya seperti ini ditakuti mereka akan tergolong bersama dalam golongan tersebut. Sabda baginda: ”Barang siapa menyerupai satu kaum, maka dia termasuk golongan mereka”. (riwayat Imam Abu Dawud, hadis no: 3512).

Tentang hukum menyambut Hari Valentine, Sheikh al-‘Utsaimin berkata: “Maka bila dalam merayakan Hari Valentine tersebut bermaksud untuk mengenangkan kembali St. Valentine, maka tidak diragukan bahawa orang itu telah kafir. Dan jika tidak bermaksud begitu namun sekadar ikut-ikutan kepada orang lain, maka orang itu telah melaksanakan dosa besar”.

Jawatankuasa Fatwa Majlis Kebangsaan Bagi Hal Ehwal Agama Islam Malaysia kali ke-71 yang bersidang pada 22 hingga 24 November 2005 memutuskan: “Bahawa amalan merayakan Valentine’s Day tidak pernah dianjurkan oleh Islam”.

Harus kita ingat bahawa golongan yang memusuhi Islam, akan sentiasa berusaha menanamkan benih-benih kesesatan dalam jiwa umat Islam supaya mereka jauh dari jalan yang lurus lagi diredai Allah SWT.

Firman-Nya: Orang-orang Yahudi dan Nasrani tidak sekali-kali akan bersetuju atau suka kepadamu (wahai Muhammad) sehingga engkau menurut agama mereka (yang telah terpesong itu). Katakanlah (kepada mereka): “Sesungguhnya petunjuk Allah (agama Islam itulah petunjuk yang benar). (al-Baqarah: 120)

How Does Stress Affect The Body?

To understand what stress does to us, imagine you lived tens of thousands of years ago, at a time when humans were threatened by hungry animals such as saber-toothed tigers and wolves. Our caveman ancestors had to be able to react instantly, either by fighting the beasts or running away.

So humans evolved the ability to respond to a stressful situation instantly, by preparing the body for "fight or flight." Under sudden stress, you will get a burst of exceptional strength and endurance, as your body pumps out stress hormones:

• Your heart speeds up

• Blood flow to your brain and muscles increases up to 400 percent

• Your digestion stops (so it doesn't use up energy that's needed elsewhere)

• Your muscle tension increases

• You breathe faster, to bring more oxygen to your muscles

Sometimes we can still benefit from this "fight or flight" response - like the case of a mother whose child was pinned under a concrete slab during a tornado. Under stress, she found the strength to lift the huge slab with her bare hands, even though it later took three men to move it.

But much of the time in modern life, the "fight or flight" response won't help. Yet those stress hormones still flood your system, preparing you for physical action. And if you are under stress frequently, it can harm your physical health.

What Are The Signs Of Stress?

Stress can cause both mental and physical symptoms. The effects of stress are different for different people.

The mental symptoms of stress include:

• Tension

• Irritability

• Inability to concentrate

• Feeling excessively tired

• Trouble sleeping

The physical symptoms of stress include:

• Dry mouth

• A pounding heart

• Difficulty breathing

• Stomach upset

• Frequent urination

• Sweating palms

• Tight muscles that may cause pain and trembling

Nice To Know: Many addictions are linked to a stressful lifestyle, such as overeating, smoking, drinking, and drug abuse. These are used as an escape or a temporary way of "switching off" - but they do not address the underlying problem.

Facts about stress According to the American Academy of Family Physicians, two-thirds of office visits to family doctors are for stress-related symptoms. Almost everyone experiences events that they find difficult to cope with. In a recent poll, 89 percent of people said they had experienced serious stress in their lives. According to one study, middle-aged men under severe stress who lacked emotional support were five times more likely to die within seven years than those who had the same amount of stress but had close personal ties. A recent study indicated that stress-management programs may reduce the risk of heart problems, including heart attack, by up to 75 percent in people with heart disease. Stress-related mental disorders have been called the fastest-growing occupational (work-related) disease in the U.S.

What Is Stress?

Stress is the emotional and physical strain caused by our response to pressure from the outside world. Common stress reactions include tension, irritability, inability to concentrate, and a variety of physical symptoms that include headache and a fast heartbeat.

It's almost impossible to live without some stress. And most of us wouldn't want to, because it gives life some spice and excitement. But if stress gets out of control, it may harm your health, your relationships, and your enjoyment of life.

Examples of "overload" situations are common in today's world:

• You and your spouse both work full time while you are raising your family. At the same time, your parents are retired, in ill health, and are dependent on your help with shopping and running errands.

• You are a single person living alone, and your salary isn't rising as fast as the rate of inflation. It's getting harder each month to pay the bills.

• You are a divorced parent and share the custody of your children with your former spouse. But the friction between the two of you on matters concerning the children is becoming more bitter and more frequent.

• The expectations and competition at your workplace is becoming fierce. You find yourself coming in early, staying late, and taking on more work than you can handle.

Managing stress involves learning about:

• How stress affects the mind and body

• How to identify the warning signs of stress

• How to develop good stress-management techniques

• When to seek professional help

Biography of Lionel Messi (my favourite player)

MESSI'10

Birthday: 1987/06/24

Full name : Lionel Andres Messi

Place of Birth : Rosario, Argentina

Height : 1.69 m (5 ft 61⁄2 in)

Weight : 67 kg

Position : Attacking midfielder/ Forward

Nickname(s) : "the new Diego Maradona", The Flea

Wife / girlfriend : Antonella Rocuzzo

Lives in : Barcelona

Current club : FC Barcelona National team : Argentina

About Lionel Messi

Game Style

Messi is an unusual player. He is highly creative, and has the skills to take on defenders with ease. He is a versatile left-footed player who can play either in the middle or on either wing, or even as a centre forward.

Not very tall Messi makes up for the lack of height in speed and agility,allowing him to change speed and direction in a heart beat. Making him a true problem for the larger defenders. Also his shot power and accuracy make him truly unique in free kick and corner situations.

Leo Messi is cool-headed and able to assume several responsibilities in times of need. He is a player who is destined to have a very successful career in football.

He has drawn comparisons to Diego Maradona, and indeed Maradona himself named Messi his “successor”.

Messi's Background

Lionel Messi was born in Rosario city on June 24, 1987. At the age of five, he started playing football for Grandoli, a club coached by his father. In 1995, Messi switched to Newell's Old Boys. At the age of 11, he was diagnosed with a growth hormone deficiency. River Plate showed interest in Messi's progress, but did not have enough money to pay for the treatment of the illness that cost over £500 a month. Carles Rexach, the sporting director of FC Barcelona, was made aware of Messi's talent, and Barcelona signed him after watching him play, offering to pay for the medical bills if he was willing to move to start a new life in Spain. His family moved with the young player to Europe and he starred in the club’s youth teams.

Club Football

FC Barcelona

Messi made his unofficial debut for the first team against FC Porto on November 16, 2003. Less than a year later he made his official debut against Espanyol on October 16, 2004, becoming the third-youngest player ever to play for FC Barcelona and youngest club player who played in La Liga (a record broken by team mate Bojan Krkić in September 2007). When he scored his first senior goal for the club against Albacete Balompié on May 1, 2005, Messi was 17 years, 10 months and 7 days old, becoming the youngest to ever score in a La Liga game for FC Barcelona until 2007 when Bojan Krkić broke this record, a goal assisted by Messi.

Messi made spectacular progress at each of the different age levels, climbing through the ranks of the different youth teams and then Barça C, followed by Barça B and the first team in record time.

In the 2003-2004 season, when he was still only 16, Messi made his first team debut in a friendly with Porto that marked the opening of the new Dragao stadium. The following championship-winning season, Messi made his first appearance in an official match on October 16, 2004, in Barcelona's derby win against Espanyol at the Olympic Stadium (0-1).

With several first team players seriously injured, the services of several reserve team players were called upon, and Messi became a regular feature of Barça squads. On May 1, 2005, he became the youngest player ever to score a league goal for FC Barcelona - against Albacete when Messi was only 17 years, 10 months and 7 days old. That record would eventually be beaten by Bojan.

At the Under 20 World Cup in Holland, Messi not only won the title with Argentina, but was also the leading goalscorer and was voted best player in the tournament. Aged 18 years, he had become one of the hottest properties in the world game. Shortly after, he made his first full international appearance in a friendly against Hungary.

His breakthrough as a player came in the 2005-06 season, starting with an amazing performance in the Joan Gamper Trophy match against Juventus. He was also outstanding at the Santiago Bernabéu, in Barcelona's unforgettable 3-0 win, and also at Stamford Bridge, in the Champions League match against Chelsea. Injury kept him sidelined for much of the latter stage of the season. Messi played a total of 17 league games, 6 in the Champions League and 2 in the Copa del Rey. Messi scored eight goals.

International Football

Argentina Under-20

In June 2004, he got his chance, playing in an under-20 friendly match against Paraguay. In 2005 he was part of the team that won the Under-20 World Cup in Holland. He also won the prize for best player of the tournament and became top-scorer.

Argentina National Team

On August 4, 2005, José Pekerman called Messi up to the senior Argentine national team. He made his debut on August 17, 2005 against Hungary, but it was a forgettable occasion. He was substituted on during the 63rd minute, but was sent off after just 40 seconds, because the referee, Markus Merk, found he had elbowed defender Vilmos Vanczák, who was tugging Messi's shirt, and left the pitch in tears. The decision was contentious. Maradona even claimed the decision was pre-meditated. Messi then had his first international start on September 3 in Argentina's 0-1 World Cup qualifier away loss against Paraguay. Ahead of the match he had said "This is a re-début. The first one was a bit short."

Copa America 2007

Messi played his first game in Copa America on 29 June, 2007, when Argentina defeated United States 4-1 in the first game. In this game, Messi showed his capabilities as a playmaker. He set up a goal for fellow striker Hernán Crespo and had numerous shots on target. Tevez came on as a substitute for Messi in the 79th minute and scored minutes later.

His second game was against Colombia, in which he caused a penalty that Crespo converted to tie the game at 1-1. He also played part in Argentina's second goal as he was fouled outside the box, which allowed Juan Roman Riquelme to score from a freekick, and increase Argentina's lead to 3-1. The final score of the game was 4-2 in Argentina's favor and guaranteed them a spot in the tournament's quarterfinals.

In the third game, against Paraguay the coach rested Messi having already qualified for the quarter-finals. He came off the bench in place of Esteban Cambiasso in the 64th minute, with 0-0. In the 79th minute he created a goal for Javier Mascherano. In the quarterfinals, as Argentina faced Peru, Riquelme made a pass to Messi and the latter scored the second goal for Argentina, which advanced to the semifinals after a 4-0 win.

In the semi finals against Mexico, Messi scored when he spotted the Mexican goalkeeper Oswaldo Sanchez off of his line and chipped the ball into the goal. The goal ultimately helped his team to a 3-0 victory and earned them a place in the final against Brazil, which Argentina subsequently lost 3-0.

Personal Info

There has been ongoing scandals as to weather Messi has a significant other in his life. According to some people he was dating a 14 year old model at one point in time. The two met when Messi came back to Argentina, in order to recover from his injuries. Knowing his daughter is a huge fan of Messi’s, the father set up a meeting between the two individuals. According to some rumours Messi was instantly attracted to her when the two met. However, this could have been a publicity stunt for the girl trying to get attention by the media.